How did the increasing size of corporations in the US up to the 1930s Essay

How did the increasing size of corporations in the US up to the 1930s affect the pattern of ownership What advantages and disadvantages did this pattern of ow - Essay Example Although foreign investment slowed as a result of the First World War, it had being a major advantage up to 1913. For instance 19% of British investments went to the US between 1911 and 1913 (Hobsbawm, 1987 p. 348). Increased profits made it an advantage for American corporations to get bigger in size. It made good sense to concentrate ownership as much as possible (Hobsbawm, 1994 p. 86). The First World War certainly presented leading American companies with advantages to expand their size, markets, and profits. As a consequence of the conflict British and German companies had not been able to export as many of their products to other countries. The drop in exports from the US most success rivals allowed its leading companies the advantage of exporting more goods. Before the US entered the war, its companies took advantage to boost their profits by exporting supplies and munitions to the combatant nations, especially France and Britain. American exports were vital to sustain the British war effort in particular. American entry into the First World War led to an expansion of industrial output, which contributed to the Allied victory and proved advantageous for the growth of American corporations. Once again events seemed to reinforce the belief that the concentration of ownership would be best (Hobsbawm, 1994 p. 85). More effective production techniques made a significant contribution to the expansion of the leading American corporations, as a higher volume of products was produced with lower costs. American corporations led the field in the development and use of mass production techniques, most notably the Ford Motor Company (Brandon, 2000 p. 70). For much of the 1920s the size of the domestic market, the growing affluence of many Americans, as well as the relative low costs of production seemed very advantageous for the expansion of the leading American companies. Arguably mass production led to a more concentrated pattern

Dimensions of Health Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Dimensions of Health - Essay Example Even with ongoing debate for and against the definition proposed by WHO, it is clear from this definition that health is an entity with multiple dimensions. This definition envisages three specific dimensions, the physical, mental, and social. These dimensions appear separate, but in reality, they are dynamic and interact with each other. Human behaviour is a common theme in human health. Human behaviour is the resultant of physical and mental factors interacting in complicated ways. The broad categories of factors that may influence individual health behaviour include knowledge, beliefs, values, attitudes, skills, finance, time, and many others. It is important to give serious considerations to the social context, a particular behaviour occurs. Health behaviour refers to those activities that an individual undertakes to avoid disease. These behaviours are dependent on the environmental contexts as well as on emotions and feelings. Most importantly, health behaviour depends on the he alth needs (Hawks et al., 2008, 319-324). Attitudes are acquired characteristics of an individual that are considered to be more or less permanent ways of behaving. An attitude contains three components, a cognitive or knowledge element, an affective or feeling element, and a tendency to action. Thus attitude can be defined as a relatively enduring organization of beliefs around an object, subject, or concept that predisposes to a response in a preferential manner. Most human beings learn attitudes from social interactions, and once they are formed, it is very difficult to change. In the recent time, attitudes are being recognized as very important determinants of health behaviours, and consequently, psychologists and health care professionals are increasingly dwelling on attitude surveys and attitude measurements, since it is becoming clear that healthy attitudes gravitate from parents, teachers, religious leaders, and elders (Nielsen et al., 2004, 28-32). The beliefs and attributions that people hold can influence their health. This can influence health by affecting their behaviour such as food habits and by a direct influence on the physiological system. Although these two modes are not mutually exclusive for the patient, and there is another set of health beliefs and attributions from the health professionals that can affect the health of individuals. These beliefs may influence health decisions and also influence patients' cognitions. Healthcare professionals may influence the beliefs and attributions, hence behaviour of patients by giving them information and through expression of their beliefs about the patient's health and the best way to overcome a particular health problem. Hence health professionals' beliefs about a disease and its management are large factors in influencing the values of the patients and their approaches to the management of illness (O'hea et al., 2005, 705-717). Values are traits such as honesty, loyalty, intelligence, or talent. This is a set of instrumental values. The other conceptions of values as traits include instrumental and expressive tendencies. Values have also been defined as need strengths including achievement, affiliation, and dominance. The contemporary values point towards a person's value-directed preference for quality rather than quantity of life. The values ascertain the strength of

Report Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 3

Report - Coursework Example The methods are used in economics, physics, and chemistry, geology, in statistics, in operational research and in other disciplines. The ride has 100 metres of fencing to make a rectangular enclosure as shown. It will use existing walls for two sides of the enclosure, and leave an opening of 2 metres for a gate as shown below we are to show that the area of the enclosure is given by: A = 102x – x2 further we are to calculate the maximum possible area. The snacks will be provided in a box with a lid made by removing squares from each corner of a rectangular piece of card and then folding up the sides as shown in below figure. The box is made with a piece of cardboard that is 40 cm by 40 cm. To arrive at the many conclusions, the particular mathematical modeling techniques used was differentiation. It mostly involved finding the maxima and minima of the various mathematical expressions that were already given or else arrived at. The results show that the maximum and minimum heights for feel the fear roller coaster are 36 meters and -14. 1815 meters respectively. The difference between the two was found to amount to 50.815 meters. On the other hand, The Giant roller coaster is 36. 434 at its maximum and -96.434 at its minimum this roller coaster starts at the ground level. For the case of the enclosure the maximum possible area was found to be the2601 square meters where the width is 51. Finally the dimensions of the snack box that yield maximum volume are as follows 6.67 cm x 13.33 cm x 26.67 cm. in this case the maximum volume is 2370.37 cubic

Best practices when offshoring business intelligence Essay Example for Free

Best practices when offshoring business intelligence Essay Ted Kempf in his article in VarBusiness credits Gartner Dataquest with the following definition for Business Intelligence; â€Å"a user-centered process for of exploring data, data relationships and trends, thereby helping improve overall decision making† (Kempf, 2001). US companies today are setting up business-intelligence technology for the purpose of processing the incessant flow of information they receive. These companies gather this information so they can maintain and build customer relationships and make sound business decisions in a timely manner. A Gartner Dataquest study revealed that the primary reason for companies investing in business-intelligence applications is to ensure they have available the information to assist them in making real-time business decisions. Even though the current trend is to outsource IT initiatives overseas to save costs, the rationale in doing the same for business intelligence is questionable. This is because business intelligence (like data ware housing) is not a technical exercise and requires business knowledge. It is iterative and business-focused in nature (Consilvio, 2003). She insists that offshoring BI presents the biggest risk for ETL (extract, transform and load) because it is grossly underestimated. For this reason, Robert Mitchell, in his article in Computerword, even goes as far as saying that the threat for offshoring is overstated (Mitchell, 2006). In her article for Computerworld, Maria Consilvio lists some of the best practices for offshoring business intelligence. They include: ? Set up tight specifications ? Start with an approach similar to staff-augmentation Define service levels which are appropriate for your expectations. ? Keep an onshore presence as representation for the business knowledge. This enables the life cycle to be quick turn. ? Ensure that the development team is reactive to feedback so that business feedback can be translated to technical specifications. ? Offshore the long term projects with more stable requirements. ? Ensure requirements are defined to such a level that the technical resource does not necessarily have to have the business knowledge. Determine beforehand the restrictions placed on exiting the contractas such contracts may not have defined end or start dates as a result of the fluid nature of BI. ? Audit offshore tools and, as much as possible, insist on scalable tools. ? Equip the onshore team with systems integration, project management and deliver management skills In support of the best practice procedures above, William McKnight of McKnight Associates suggests the following as excerpted from his 2003 article in Computerworld: ON-SITE * Set up benchmarking and service-level criteria * Establish business rules * Maintain (create/translate) business knowledge * Involve users in data warehouse decisions * Ensure application support after development OFF-SITE * Set up an enforcement mechanism for business rules * Establish expertise in tools, such as data cleansing, automated extractors, dashboards and real-time delivery * Application development * Application support and project maintenance REFERENCES Consilvio, Jean. (2003). BI: Last to Leave. Computerworld, December 12. Kempf, Ted. (2001). Business-Intelligence Apps: Companies want them, but are emerging integrators prepared to deliver? VarBusiness, November 6. McGee, Marianne Kolbasuk. (2006). You Vs. Offshoring U. S. tech pros are surprisingly upbeat, and pay is on the rise. But the job outlook is anything but warm and fuzzy. InformationWeek, April 24. Mitchell, Robert L. (2006). Why Good Technologists Are Hard to Find. Computerworld, March 20.

Music Essays Baroque Music

Music Essays Baroque Music Baroque Music In the book The Enjoyment of Music, Joseph Machlis and Kristine Forney state, the word baroque comes from the Portuguese word barocco which means a pearl of irregular shapes that was used to make jewelry of the time. (299) According to online data the word was first used to describe the style of architecture in Italy during the 17th and 18th century. Later on the word baroque was used to describe the music styles of the 1600s to the 1700s. The Baroque period was a time when composers experimented with form, styles and instruments. This period saw the development of opera and instrumental music. (About.com) Although we use the term baroque today, the appropriateness of the term baroque has been questioned. In music, the term Baroque applies to the final period of dominance of imitative counterpoint where different voices and instruments echo each other but at different pitches, sometimes inverting the echo, and even reversing thematic material. Baroque music too many in the sixteenth century was bizarre, extravagant, and unnatural. According to the data from online Encarta, Baroque music was very different to the music before its time such as medieval and early renaissance music and the development of new harmonic and melodic lines added difference in pace and variation to the compositions giving them a new shape and form. The structure of the music also changed different forms such as fugues and cannons developed and different instruments were introduced. Get help with your essay from our expert essay writers Composers of the early baroque period placed an emphasis on melody. Developments began in Italy and first took place in vocal music, especially opera. Instrumental music started out as an accompaniment of voice but over the course of the baroque era, it achieved an independent identity. Melodies were embellished with ornaments of different types, rapid alternation between the main note and the note just above it. All composers in countries used ornamentation, but it was favored by French composers. Baroque melodies, vocal and instrumental, made prominent use of melodic sequence, the repetition of a short motif at a higher or lower pitch. (Encarta). The principle melody in baroque music was supported by a written bass line, the basso continuo, played by a viol, cello or bassoon. Other parts were added between the melody and the bass by a keyboard instrument, usually a harpsichord or organ. Only they melody and the bass line were written out. Numbers placed over or under the bass notes indicated the type of chord to be played, and they keyboard accompanist added the appropriate notes. (Encarta) According to Manfred F. Bukofzer in his book Music in the Baroque Era the baroque style went through several phases that didn’t even coincide in different countries. They were grouped into three major periods: early, middle and late baroque. Although the periods overlap in time, they can roughly be dated as the first from 1580 to 1630, the second from 1630 to 1680, and the last from 1680 to 1730. These spans indicate only the formative periods of the new concepts with which the previous ones may run parallel for some time, and the start of the baroque period only applies to Italy. In other countries the periods began ten to twenty years later. The middle baroque period brought the bel-canto style in that cantata and opera, with the distinction between aria and recitative. A single section of musical forms began to grow and contrapuntal texture was reinstituted. The modes were reduced to major and minor and the chord progressions are governed by a rudimentary tonality which restrained the free dissonance treatment of the early baroque. The late baroque style was distinguished by a fully established tonality which regulated chord progression, dissonance treatment, and the formal structure. The contrapuntal technique culminated in the full absorption tonal harmony. The forms grew to large dimensions. The concerto style appeared and with it came the emphasis on mechanical rhythm. (17) Along with the different phases of the baroque period there were also different styles, according to Joseph Machlis and Kristine Forney in their book The Enjoyment of Music they explain the different styles. Machlis Forney states that the transition form Renaissance to Baroque brought with it a great change, the shift of interest from texture of several independent parts to one in which a single melody stood out, from polyphonic music to homophonic. The monodic style which originated in vocal music, was named monody wand literally means â€Å"one song,† music for one singer with instrumental accompaniment. The monodic style was known during the beginning of the baroque era. The recitative style is a half-spoken, half-sung delivery, which is often used to link songlike numbers in an opera, oratorio or cantata. Recitative can be dry or accompanied. Secco recitative has only very simple chordal accompaniment; accompanied recitative involves the orchestra more actively. Continuo is the accompaniment part within a homophonic texture, in which a keyboard instrument or sometimes a lute plays a supporting bass line. The composer would write out a single melodic line, and then add figures beneath it to indicate which harmonies the performer should add to it in order to fill out the texture. An aria is a solo song, normally occurring in the context of a longer work but sometimes autonomous. It is usually formally closed, meaning that it could be removed from its setting and performed independently as a complete musical unit. The cantata is a work for solo vocalists, chorus and instrumentalist based on a lyric or dramatic poem. It is generally short and intimate, consisting of several movements that include recitatives, arias, and ensemble members. (395-412). There were many composers that wrote music throughout the baroque era, some more significant than others but each contributing a large amount to the development throughout this period. In Claude Palisca book Baroque Music Arcangelo Corelli was one of the first prominent composers of the Baroque era; he was an Italian composer and violinist writing music in a chamber style and in the form of the late baroque era. Corelli was born in 1653 in Fusignano, Italy not far from Bologna, he spent four years of study in the latter center of violin music before settling in Rome. Corelli separated church and chamber sonatas, grouping them in dozens or half dozens. The content of the two types of sonatas show, an interpenetration of the two manners of writing. Corelli would begin his church sonatas with a severe, majestic, solemn mood, passed on to a resolute and contented one, then to a tenderly melancholic affection, and finally to a light and carefree one. (152) In Donna Getzingr and Daniel Felsenfeld book, Johann Sebastian Bach and the Art of Baroque Music. Bach was a prolific German composer and organist whose sacred and secular works for choir, orchestra, and solo instruments drew together the strands of the baroque period and brought it to its ultimate maturity. Getzinger and Felsenfeld states that Bach’s music wasn’t appreciated during his time he never played his music in public places because his music was not always well received. He was often criticized for writing music many considered overly complicated, and he quit jobs when his employers could not understand what he had hoped to accomplish with his music. (11-14) Machlis and Forney state that Bach was one of the greatest religious artists in history. He believed that music must serve â€Å"the glory of God.† Bach produced works that spoke for the entire Lutheran faith. The prime medium for Bach’s talents was the organ, and during his life he was known as a virtuoso organist. In Bach’s last works it revealed a master who raised existing forms to the highest level. His sheer mastery of contrapuntal composition has never been equaled. (416-417) It is a still-debated question as to what extent Baroque music shares aesthetic principles with the visual and literary arts of the Baroque period. A fairly clear, shared element is a love of ornamentation, and it is perhaps significant that the role of ornament was greatly diminished in both music and architecture as the Baroque gave way to the Classical period. I had the pleasure of listening to some of Bach music, and say I will definitely add his music to my music collection. Works Cited Bukofzer, Manfred F. Music in the Baroque Era, from Monteverdi to Bach. London: Dent, 1948. Getzinger, Donna. Felsenfeld, Daniel. Johann Sebastian Bach and the Art of Baroque Music. Greensboro, North Carolina: Morgan Reynolds Publishing, Inc. 2004 Machlis, Joseph, Kristine Forney, The Enjoyment of Music: An Introduction to Perceptive Listening. New York: W.W. Norton, 2000. Palisca, Claude V. Baroque Music. Prentice-Hall history of music series. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1981.

Definition And History Of Foster Care Social Work Essay

Definition And History Of Foster Care Social Work Essay New World Enclopedia (2012) defines foster care as full-time substitute care of children outside their own home by people other than their biological or adoptive parents or legal guardians.] History of foster care Placement of children in foster homes is a concept which goes as far back as the Old Testament, which refers to caring for dependent children as a duty under law. Early Christian church records indicate orphaned children lived with widows who were paid by the church. English Poor Laws in the 1500s allowed the placement of poor children into indentured service until they became adults. This practice was imported to the United States and was the beginning of placing children into foster homes. [1] The most significant record of fostering was in 1853, a child was removed from a workhouse in Cheshire and placed in a foster family under the legal care of the local government.At the beginning of the 1900s only orphaned or abandoned children under the age of 11 years were fostered, and they had to have a demanding psychological profile well adjusted, obedient and physically normal. Until World War II, foster care was recognized as a charitable service. Two important events that pushed the state to look at the foster care system in a different angle was the first mass evacuation of millions of children and then the death of a child in a foster care in 1945. In 1969 research was carried out on the foster care system and it was found that foster families required training on how to deal with the foster children and make them fill secure in the placement. (Jeune Guishard-Pine, 2007) Foster care as a global concept Foster care is probably the most widely practised form of substitute care for children world-wide, depending on the needs of the child, the culture and the system in place. There are many different kinds of fostering and definitions of foster care vary internationally. It can be short -term, a matter of days ,or a child whole childhood. A review of foster care in Twenty-two countries found considerable diversity in the way of fostering in both defined and practised.(Hannah Johnson, 2005).Kinship foster care ,which is the most common form of fostering in African countries is not defined as foster care in all countries. In Ireland for example only children placed with no relatives are said to be fostered. In some countries foster care is seen only as a temporary arrangement ,whereas in others the norms is for long term and quasi adoptive placement.(Colton William ,1995) Hannah Johnson (2005) stated that the process to be registered as foster parents in different countries such as U.K , Australia, Uganda and South Africa is practically the same. In some countries foster care programme is managed either by the government or agency, and each country has their basic criteria that need to be fulfilled ,such as being physically and mentally fit and healthy, having a room for the child ,having time to spend with the child .The process to be registered as foster families can take approximately six months. Individuals who are willing to become foster families must make their applications to the agency. A home study is conducted by a social worker to assess the capability of the applicants for taking care of a child. The assessment form is then forwarded to the final panel who will decide whether the applicants are fit to become foster carers. Placement in Foster care According to zuravin Deponfilis (1997) children are removed from their homes to protect them from immediate abuses. In many situations, these children have suffered physical, sexual abuse, or neglect at home, and therefore they are placed in a safe environment. A small percentage of children are in foster care because their parents feel unable to control them, and their behaviour may have led to delinquency or fear of harm to others. Some children have been neglected by their parents or legal guardians, or have parents or legal guardians who are unable to take care of them because of substance abuse, incarceration, or mental health problems. These children are then placed into foster care until the parents or guardians are capable of looking after them.[1] In all foster care cases, the childs biological or adoptive parents, or other legal guardians, temporarily give up legal custody of the child. (The guardian gives up custody, but not necessarily legal guardianship.) A child may be placed in foster care with the parents consent. In a clear case of abuse or neglect, a court can order a child into foster care without the parents or guardians consent. Before any placement the foster care family is screened by the Government or agency through a psychologist or social worker that assess the foster care families under certain criteria such as emotional stability, motivation, parental skills and financial capabilities.[2] The government provides foster families with an allocation taking in foster children. They are required to use the funds to buy the childs food, clothing, school supplies, and other incidentals. Most of the foster parents responsibilities toward the foster child are clearly defined in a legal contract. Foster placements may last for a single day or several weeks; some continue for years. If the parents give up their rights permanently, or their rights to their child are severed by the court, the foster family may adopt the foster child or the child may be placed for adoption by strangers.[3] The Aim of Foster Care System According to Hayden (1999), the aim of foster care system is to protect and endorse the security of the child, while providing foster parents and biological parents with the sufficient resources and available services needed to maintain the childs healthy development. Foster care environments are proposed to be places of safety and comfort, and are monitored by several welfare agencies, representatives, and caseworkers. Personal caseworkers assigned to a foster child by the state or county are accountable for supervising the placement of the child into an appropriate foster care system or home. The caseworker also carries out regular visits to the foster care family home to monitor progress. Other agents involved in a childs placement into foster care may include private service providers, welfare agencies, insurance agents, psychologists, and substance abuse counselors. Types of Foster Care Parents may voluntarily place children into foster care for various reasons. Such foster placements are monitored until the biological family can provide appropriate care for the child, or the biological parental rights are terminated and the child is adopted. A third option, known as guardianship, is sometimes utilized in certain cases where a child cannot be reunified with their birth family and adoption is not a suitable solution. This generally includes some older foster children who may be strongly bonded to their family of origin and unwilling to pursue adoption. Voluntary foster care may be utilized in circumstances where a parent is unable or unwilling to care for a child; a child may have behavioural or psychological problems requiring specialized treatment, or the parent might have a problem which results in a temporary or permanent inability to care for the child. Involuntary foster care is implemented when a child is removed from their caregiver for his or her own personal safety. A foster parent receives monetary reimbursement from the placement agency for each foster child while the child is in his or her home to help cover the cost of meeting the childs needs (Dorsey et al 2008) stated that in many countries ,most of the children enter the foster care system due to neglect. Children may join the foster care system via Voluntary or involuntary means. Voluntary placement may happen when the biological parents are facing difficulties to take care of the child. Involuntary placement occurs when the child is being at risk under the care of the biological parents. Adoption and Foster Care Reporting System recorded , different types of fostering such as: (i) Foster family home, relative A licensed or unlicensed home of the childs relatives regarded by the state as a foster care living arrangement for the child. (ii) Foster family home, non-relative A licensed foster family home regarded by the state as a foster care living arrangement. (iii)Group home or Institution A group home is a licensed or approved home providing 24-hour care for children in a small group setting that generally has from 7 to twelve children. An Institution is a facility operated by a public or private agency and providing 24-hour care and/or treatment for children who require separation from their own homes and group living experience. These facilities may include child care institutions, residential treatment facilities, or maternity homes. Problems in Foster Care System [1]Foster children face a number of problems both within and outside the foster care system. Foster children are more vulnerable to neglect, abuse, family dysfunction, poverty, and severe psychological conditions. The trauma caused to a child when removed from their home is also severe and may cause depression, anger, and confusion. Studies have shown that psychological conditions of abused and neglected children are required to improve when placed in foster care, however the separation from their biological parents causing traumatic effect on the child. Children with histories of maltreatment, such as physical and psychological neglect, physical abuse, and sexual abuse, are often at risk of developing severe psychiatric problems and may be described as experiencing trauma-attachment problems. The trauma experienced may be the result of abuse or neglect, inflicted by a primary caregiver, which disrupts the normal development of secure attachment. Associated Problems with Foster Care Child In long term the foster care children suffer from psychological, cognitive and epigenetic effects. The Northwest Foster Care Alumni Study on foster care children showed that foster care children, were found to have double the incidence of depression, and were found to have a higher rate of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) than combat veterans. Tarren-Sweeny (2010) reported that Children in foster care have a higher probability of having Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, and deficits in executive functioning, anxiety as well as other developmental problems. Neurodevelopmental Disorder A neurodevelopmental disorder is an impairment of the growth and development of the brain or central nervous system. It refers to a brain disorder of brain function that affects emotion,learning ability and memory and that unfolds as the individual grows. Most foster care children are placed in foster care families at a very young age which is a critical period for the children as the development of mental and psychological processes occur during early childhood. According to kristen Rollins, the human brain does not develop fully until the age of 25, and one of the most critical periods of brain development occurs in the first 3-4 years. Therefore, the human brain is influenced by negative environmental factors such as emotional neglect, poor nutrition and exposure to violence in the home and any type of abuses. The study by McCrory E et al ( 2010) states that the negative environmental factors influences all areas of neurodevelopment: neurogenesis (creation of new neurons), apoptosis (death and reabsorption of neurons), migration (of neurons to different regions of the brain), synaptogenesis (creation of synapses), synaptic sculpturing (determining the make-up of the synapse), arborization (the growth of dendritic connections, myelinzation (protective covering of neurons), and an enlargement of the brains ventricles, which can cause cortical atrophy including decreased activity of the prefrontal cortex. Harden BJ (2004) reports that Foster children have elevated levels of cortisol, a stress hormone in comparison to children raised by their biological parents. Elevated cortisol levels can decrease the immune system. Post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) According to Dubber (1999) 60% of children in foster care who were sexually abused had post traumatic stress disorder ( PTSD). 18% of children who were not abused faced PTSD just by witnessing violence at home. These children then suffer from intrusive memories, flashbacks, avoidance, and psychological and physiological reactivity. Eating Disorders Eating disorders refer to a group of conditions defined by abnormal eating habits that may involve either insufficient or excessive food intake to the detriment of an individuals physical and mental health. Hudson, JI; Hiripi, E; Pope Jr, HG; Kessler, RC (2007). According to Hadfield Sc (2008), Obesity in all age groups of children has become an increasing concern in recent years. Children in foster care are more prone to become overweight and obese, and in a study done in the United Kingdom, 35% of foster children experienced an increase in Body Mass Index (BMI) once in care. The children also suffer from Food Maintenance Syndrome which is a pattern of excessive eating and food acquisition and maintenance behaviour without concurrent obsesity. The syndrome is said to be caused by stress and maltreatment of foster care children. Tarren-Sweeney (2006) study states that children in foster care also suffer from Food Maintenance Syndrome which is characterized by a set of aberrant eating behaviors of children in foster care. It is a pattern of excessive eating and food acquisition and maintenance behaviors without concurrent obesity; it resembles the behavioral correlates of Hyperphagic Short Stature. It is hypothesised that this syndrome is triggered by the stress and maltreatment foster children are subjected to. Northwest Foster Care Alumini study (2011) reports that Bulimina Nervosa is seven times more prevalent among former foster children than in general population. Epigenetic effects of environment According to Weaver (2004) negative environmental influences, such as maternal deprivation, child abuse and stress have a profound effect on gene expression, including transgenerational epigenetic effects in which physiological and behavioral (intellectual) transfer of information across generations-not-yet-conceived is effected. Neighh GN et al (2009) states that the effects of abuse may be extended beyond the immediate victim into subsequent generations as a consequence of epigenetic effects transmitted directly to offspring. Suicide -Death Rate Charles (1991) states Children in foster care families are at a greater risk of suicide. Children from foster care families as compared to general population have a risk ratio of suicidal attempts of four to five time greater. A study conducted in Finland have indicated that children in foster care have a higher mortality rate compared to the general population due to incidence of acute and chronic medical conditions and developmental delays.(Kalland M,2001) Academic Prospects According to Neild Ruth et al (2006) foster care children tend to underachieve academically with many never completing high school. The children have low concentration in class and perform poorly in exams. Very few children attempt University and obtain a degree. Barriers in foster care System Timing in Placement Children are more prone to experience insecurity in the foster home during the initial phase of placement, especially in the first six to seven months.(Mary Bruce Webb et al, (2010) Peter J Pecora, James K. Whittaker et al,(2010 )suggest that older children experience placement Stability during the initial phase compared to infants. In order to decrease the chances for placement disruption which children normally experience during the initial phase of placement, it is recommended that children develop trust and not feel lost in the system. Characteristics of the Home (Berridge Cleaver, 1987) stated that children have difficulty to adapt in foster home when they are placed with other children who are roughly the same age or if they are placed in foster homes where the foster parents have children of their own. Foster Children placed with other children may feel insecure and start competing for affection and materialistic objects eventually this leads to conflicts in the foster care family. Childrens mental and behavioral health According to J.Gavin Bremner Theodore D.Wachs (2010), Child behaviour problems is among the frequent reason that foster parents request the removal of a child in their care. Children over the age of four (4) are more prone to experience placement instability due to behavioural problems. (Strijker, Zandberg, van der Meulen, 2002) Foster Parent Characteristics Training and support for foster parents are of a paramount importance to avoid children experience disruption in their foster homeFoster parents who have bigger support system such as extended family are more possible to provide a secure placement for the child. .(Walsh Walsh 1990;Redding et al 2000). Furthermore, foster parents who seize suitable hope and understand causes and reason for a childs behaviour is predictive of placement stability.(Butler Charles 1999) Counselling in the Foster Care System Definition of counselling Counselling often described as talking therapy, is a process aimed at providing clients with the time and space to explore their problems, understand their problems, and resolve , or come to terms with their problems, in a confidential setting. The Royal College(2006 a) defines counselling simply as a type of psychotherapy which helps people address and resolve their problems and work through their feelings.(Jan Sutton William stewart ,2008) Counselling involves the development of a relationship between the client and a trained professional that focuses on the clients concerns and difficulties . it is a process in which individuals have the opportunity to improve upon their understanding of themselves ,including their patterns of thoughts ,behaviours ,feelings and the ways in which these may have been problematic in their lives. Counselling is a collaborative effort as it involves the client and the counsellor working together to identify goals. Throughout the counselling process the client is encouraged ,supported and empowered to look at himself/herself from a different perspective . The aim is not only to help the client cope with a current issue of crisis ,but to do so in a way that produces learning for the future ,so that the client can feel more in charge of his/her life.(M.Ravi 2008) 3.4.1 Foster Child Counselling Williams (1994) ,Children in foster care have often suffered abuse, neglect or maltreatment. Trauma will affect children in different ways, depending on age, family support, developmental level and basic temperament. The objective of child counselling (taken from Children and Trauma) include: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ The safe release of feeling à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Relief from symptoms and post traumatic behaviors à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Recovery of a sense of mastery and control in life à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Correction of misunderstanding and self blame à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Restoration of a sense of trust in oneself and the future à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Minimizing the scars of trauma à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Development of specific skills or coping tools The Therapy is meant to be a process to work through trauma and help a child understand what has happened to him/her. It also aims to help a child function better in the world around him /her. 3.4.2 Foster Family Counselling (Fernandez Elizabeth, 2010) Therapy does not change family dynamics. Placing a child in therapy will help the child but will not fix the problems in the family. Family counselling offers a better chance at successful family reunification. Nevertheless, steps need to be taken to provide assistance to the child and foster family who are in need of counselling. Thus, counsellors and therapists need to construct a relationship based on mutual trust for the counselling process to begin. According to Silva (1991), to establish therapeutic mutual trust, there need to be the following requirements: Accurate Empathy: The therapist conveys his or her understanding of the childs background and experience; Genuineness: The therapist is as spontaneous, tactful, flexible, and non-defensive as possible; Availability: The therapist is accessible and available (within reason) when needed, and avoids making promises and commitments he or she cannot realistically keep; Respect: This is both gracious and firm, and acknowledges the childs sense of autonomy, control, and responsibility within the therapeutic relationship. Respect is manifested by the therapists general attitude, as well as by certain specific actions Concreteness: Therapy should, at least initially be goal-oriented and have a problem-solving focus. Foster parents are into action and results, and to the extent that it is clinically realistic, the therapeutic approach should emphasise active, problem-solving approaches before tackling more sensitive and complex psychological issues. Counselling Strategies and Techniques Blau (1994) recommends that the first meeting between the therapist and the child establish a safe and comfortable working atmosphere by the therapists articulating : a positive endorsement of the foster parents decision to seek help; a clear description of the therapists responsibilities and limitations with respect to confidentiality and privilege; and Blau (1994) also delineates a number of effective intervention strategies for foster children including the following: Attentive Listening: This includes good eye contact, appropriate body language, and genuine interest, without inappropriate comment or interruption. Empathy: This therapeutic attitude conveys availability, concern, and awareness of the turbulent emotions being experienced by the traumatised children. Reassurance: In acute bahvioural situations, this should take the form of realistically reassuring the child that matters will be taken care of. Supportive Counselling: This includes effective listening, restatement of content, clarification of feelings, and reassurance. In appropriate cases, this therapeutic strategy can stimulate the officer to explore underlying emotional stresses that intensify a naturally stressful traumatic event. In a few cases, this may lead to ongoing psychotherapy (Miller, 2006).

Sustained Silent Reading Essay -- Education

Sustained Silent Reading Most administrators and educators, if asked what is the area that needs the most improvement in schools today, would answer reading. Children seem to battle with reading at almost every grade level. As reported by Trelease (2006) students do not read very much. In one reported study, 90% of the students studied devoted only 1 percent of their free time to reading and 30% to watching television. Fifty percent of the students read for an average of four minutes or less per day, 30% read two minutes per day, and 10% read nothing at all (p. 1). These statistics only serve to worsen the fear of students low reading abilities. Educators have developed a myriad of programs to improve students’ comprehension, retention, and higher level thinking skills. These skills are especially important in the improvement of scores on the state mandated assessments. Among these programs is Sustained Silent Reading (SSR), which promises that students can improve comprehension, enjoy reading for pleasure, and become life-long readers in fifteen to twenty minutes a day. Sustained Silent Reading is a program where students read any type of printed material for an uninterrupted, specific amount of time. Gardiner (2001) states there are many different names for SSR, such as Drop Everything and Read (DEAR), Uninterrupted Sustained Silent Reading (USSR), and Providing Opportunities with Everyday Reading (POWER) to name a few (p. 32). Each program varies a little from the others, but they share the same guidelines. Students read silently every day, choose their own materials, read for an uninterrupted amount of time, do not have to finish a book or other material, notice the teacher reading as well, and do not have to tak... ...his article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/19388070309558400 DEAR me: What does it take to get children reading? By: Lee-Daniels, Sonya L., Murray, Bruce A., Reading Teacher, 00340561, Oct2000, Vol. 54, Issue 2 Teaching of English Language and Literature (TELL) Journal Volume 15, Number 2, November 1999 Anthony Seow The Read aloud Handbook Jim Trelease's 2006 Penguin Books http://www.educationworld.com/a_curr/curr038.shtml "Sustained Silent Reading" Helps Develop Independent Readers (and Writers) Article by Gary Hopkins Education World ® Copyright  © 1997 Education World Originally published 11/19/1997 Updated 10/15/2007 Why Sustained Silent Reading (SSR) Doesn’t Work June 25th, 2011 | Mark Pennington, MA Reading Specialist Pennington Publishing Blog http://penningtonpublishing.com/blog/reading/why-sustained-silent-reading-ssr-doesn%E2%80%99t-work